On 28 October 1940, Benito Mussolini seeking to establish complete Italian control in the Mediterranean, launched the invasion of Greece. Benito Mussolini and his generals anticipated a quick victory, but the Greeks—who had already begun mobilizing thanks to British military intelligence[1]—resisted bravely, derailing the advance of the Italian 9th Army under General Visconti Prasca, and eventually pushed the invaders back deep into Albania. During the winter period in the Albanian mountains, the campaign settled into a bloody stalemate. In the spring the reinforced Italians armies under General Ugo Cavallero launched Operation Primavera, but failed. General Cavallero launched a new spring offensive in April 1941 but the Italo-Greek War was soon overshadowed by Operation Marita, the German invasion through northern Greece and Yugoslavia.
Italian 9th Army[]
On 28 October, the Italian 9th Army (comprising eight divisions, including one armoured division; up to 200, 000 men; and 250 tanks, 700 guns, and 400 warplanes) under the command of General Visconti Prasca, invaded Greece from Albania, which Italy had occupied in 1939.
The Italian invasion was launched in driving rain that deprived the army of air support. The Littoral Group advanced along the coast while the Tsamouria Corps advanced slowly through the mountains towards Kalpaki.[2]On their left the 3rd 'Julia' Alpine Division advanced in two regimental-sized formations along the slopes of Mount Smolikas with the objective of capturing the Metsovon Pass. Meanwhile, in Macedonia the Italian 26th Corps in the form of the 49th 'Parma' Infantry Division took up defensive positions in order to counter a possible Greek counterattack.
Swollen rivers and mud tracks resulted in slow progress with the Greek rearguards falling back onto prepared positions. Despite the rugged terrain and fierce Greek resistance, the Aosta Lancers and the Littoral Group established a bridgehead over the Kalamas River.[3] The Tsamouria Corps made slow progress along the mountain tracks with the supporting 131st 'Centauro' Armoured Division tanks having to be abandoned in the advance. Nevertheless, the 'Julia' Division in the centre began to penetrate the Greek defences but General Papagos rushed forward Evzones reinforcements that soon threatened to cut off the 'Julia'.[4]Bersaglieri reinforcements helped extricate the division, but only after heavy fighting and many casualties.[5]
Despite Italian the Italian Army having superior numbers of infantry, artillery, tanks and air support, the low clouds and mountainous terrain favoured the Greek detachments in limiting the Italian advance. The Italians also attacked without proper air support in the form of round-the-clock bombing formations, with only 187 combat aircraft reported employed in the first days of the invasion. Although their Air Force and Navy were far superior to the opposite Greek forces, the Italian Comando Supremo (Supreme Command) failed to capitalize on this and carry out seaborne landings and paratroop drops to draw away Greek forces from the main area of the Italian advance.
By the second week of the invasion, the Greek Army in the Pindus sector had assembled 15 battalions to counter the Italian invasion. The Greeks achieved numerical superiority by 14 November, when their counteroffensive began. At the time they had 214,000 men in the Albanian front. Italian reinforcements where thrown into the defensive lines piecemeal often without supporting arms and with confusing orders.
Numerical parity was achieved by the 1 January 1941, when the Italians had 272,500 men in Albania.
In February, the Italian Supreme Command reinforced their defensive lines in Albania with a total of 28 divisions (comprising 4 Alpine, 1 Armoured and 23 Infantry divisions), totalling 526,000 men. On 9 March, General Ugo Cavallero launched the Spring Offensive with seven divisions in an attack aimed at penetrating between the Vijose River and Mount Tommorit. The 14 Greek divisions in Albania lost some ground until the attack was called off on 25 March in the face of heavy casualties and Greek counterattacks.
Greek Epirus Army[]
Forewarned about Italian invasion route, General Alexander Papagos deployed on the Greek-Albanian frontier, two infantry divisions and two infantry brigades of the Epirus Army, comprising 27, 000 men, 20 tanks, 70 guns, and 36 warplanes.
Despite the Italian Army having superior numbers of infantry, artillery, tanks and air support, the mountainous terrain favoured the defenders. Each Greek infantry regiment also had 36 heavy machine guns (HMGs) compared to just 24 in the Italian regiments, with each Greek division having 115 HMGs compared to just 80 in Italian divisions.
By the second week of the invasion, the Greek forces in the Pindus sector had amassed 15 battalions to counter the advance of the 47h 'Bari' Infantry Division and five supporting Alpini battalions.
The Greek commanders achieved numerical superiority by 14 November, when their first counteroffensive began. At the time the Greek Army had 214,000 men in the Albanian front. The retreating Italians dug in along the Devoli River and reinforcements were rushed forward often without supporting arms and with confusing orders.
The Greek 15th Division in the north made good progress in the freezing conditions along the slopes of Mount Ivan, while the Greek 9th and 10th Divisions. in a major defeat for the Italians, overran several Italians units defending Korce which was abandoned on 21 November.
By 20 April 1941, however, it was clear that after six months of fighting the exhausted Greek forces could do no more than disrupt and slow down General Ugo Cavallero's second spring offensive in Albania. The Greek government finally agreed that the Greek Army in Albania should be evacuated for the defense of Greece. Under fierce air attack from Regia Aeronautica bomber and fighter formations, a number of divisions were cut off during the Greek retreat across the Vjosa River and left behind in Albania.
Italian invasion of Greece[]
On 28 October 1940, the Comando Supremo , confident of a rapid conquest of Greece, launched an advance against Kastoria and Fiorina, planning to capture Epirus and occupy all of Greece. However, the 'Pindus' Detachment under Colonel Konstantinos Davakis, taking advantage of the mountainous terrain put up unexpeted stiff resistance and eventually stopped the Italian spearheads on 14 November.
On 9 November, the Italian invaders in the form of the 9th Army comprised the 29th 'Piemonte' Infantry, 53rd 'Arezzo' Infantry, 49th 'Parma' Infantry & 19th 'Venezia' Infantry Divisions in Western Macedonia with the 'Julia' and 'Bari' Divisions on the lower slopes of the Pindus Mountain and the 2nd 'Tridentina' Alpine Division in reserve. The 11th Army comprised the 23rd 'Ferrara' Infantry Division, 51st 'Sienna' Infantry Division and 'Centauro' Armoured Division.
In preparation for a counteroffensive to start on 5 December against the Greek defenders entrenched along Kalamas River, General Soddu replaced Visconte Prasca.
Greek counterinvasion in Albania[]
On 5 November, fierce fighting took place on the lower slopes of Mount Morova and near Kalamas River. The Greeks counterattacked after defeating attacks from Italian tanks and Bersaglieri, with the help from the 39th Evzones Regiment from Kalpaki.[6]
On 11 November, the reinforced Epirus Army comprising 12 infantry divisions, two cavalry divisions and three infantry brigades, entered Albanian territory, where they were supported by Albanian partisans. The Italian Supreme Command hastily brought in reinforcements and created the 11th Army to join the 9th Army as part of the Albania Group of Armies (comprising 27 divisions) under the command of General Ubaldo Soddu.
Despite Italian superiority in equipment and elite reinforcements, the Greek troops advanced 25–60 kilometres into Albanian before the Italian lines stabilized. The loss of Koritsa and Erseke along with 130 Italian tanks and armoured cars that fell into Greek hands, was a major blow to Italian military prestige and exposed the left flank of the Italian 11th Army on the coast which was forced to retreat deep into Albania whilst being vigorously pursued by Greek spearheads.[7]By 10 January, the Klisura junction had been captured and Italian units only managed to stabilize the line south of the port of Vlore.
Italian First Spring Offensive[]
On 9 March 1941 the Italians launched their First Spring Offensive, designed to avenge four months of humiliating losses. The objective was a pair of parallel valleys dominated by the Greek-held Hill 731 that had to be taken with the help of superior firepower.
The 8th Corps from the 11th Italian Army (under Geneeral Carlo Geloso) had the task of seizing the key height, spearheaded by 38th 'Puglie' Division. Holding the position was the Greek 1st Division of the 2nd Corps, with the 4th and 6th Division on the flanks.
For 17 days, after a massive softening-up bombardment (which reduced the feauture by 6 metros), the Italians threw themselves with suicidal courage against the Elite Greek Evzones on the hill, to be repeatedly checked with heavy casualties.
Greek-Yugoslav counteroffensive[]
The Greek and Yugoslav commanders now set in motion a counter-offensive that aimed to capture Vlore and Skurari, allowing several Greek divisions to be redeployed to defend the Metaxas Line. In Athens, it was becoming increasingly clear that a German invasion through Bulgaria was in the making. The new Greek-Yugoslav counteroffensive, supported by Royal Air Force (RAF) fighter and bomber squadrons made some progress but ground to a halt in the face of strong Italian defenses and bad weather.
The Yugoslav advance to Skutari was halted by the 131st 'Centauro' Armoured Division with the Yugoslav human-wave attack suffering heavy losses.[8]
Italian Second Spring Offensive[]
Italian troops attacking Hill 731
On 13 April, the Italian forces began their Second Spring Offensive. The Italian offensive was slowed due to the rearguard actions from the Greek 13th Division.[9]
Nevertheless, Koritza was taken by Bersaglieri motorbike troops on 14 April.[10] The Italian advance was then aimed towards Ponte Perati, where 47th 'Bari' Divisions faced fierce opposition from the Greek defenders. The 5th 'Pusteria' from the Italian Alpine Corps entered Greek territory on 21 April.
Only after the Italians recaptured Koritza was the defence of Greece compromised that facilitated the German invasion through the Metaxas Line and elsewhere.[11] On 23 April 1941, General Georgios Tsolakoglu signed an act of surrender and armistice with Germany and Italy.
British reinforcements[]
At the start of the Second World War, Greece attempted to remain neutral but came under increasing pressure from Italy. In October 1940, Mussolini sent divisions from Albania into Greece. Britain dispatched a squadron of fighters to assist the Greeks and prepared to send more combat aircraft, but the Greek Army in Albania was already counter-attacking and driving the invaders back into Albania.
After the failed Greek offensive in Albania in February 1941, the Greek commanders accepted that an Allied expeditionary force should be urgently dispatched to defend Greece.[12]This British Commonwealth force, under Gernal Maitland Wilson, consisted mainly of British, Australians and New Zealanders taking part in the final drive during Operation Compass.
The first British units from North Africa arrived on 5 March 1941, with air support eventually consisting of 200 modern aircraft (including reserves) against 800 German aircraft in Bulgaria and 160 Italian aircraft in Albania and a further 150 Regia Aeronautica warplanes based in Italy within range of Greece.[13]
General Archibald Wavell, the commander of Operation Compass, later reported that the decision to send reinforcements to Greece was a strategic error that prolonged the North African Campaign, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill admitted in September 1941 that the British halt outside Tripoli had indeed been a mistake.
German invasion[]
With the presence of the Royal Air Force (RAF) in Crete, it became increasingly clear that a German invasion of Greece was imminent. For Adolf Hitler, the intervention was necessary to help the Italians and protect the Romanian oilfields from British bombers and secure the German southern flank for the planned invasion of Russia (Operation Barbarossa).
Germany invaded Yugoslavia and northern Greece on 6 April 1941. Outnumbered in the air and along the Metaxas Line the Greek and Allied forces were unable to deploy sufficient troops in any one area to halt the German and Italian advance. The campaign was also hindered by the failure of R-41, the 3rd Yugoslav Army's counteroffensive outside Skutari[14]and the Italian capture of Koritza in Albania[15][16], poor communications and the under-developed road and and rail system. Greek and Allied divisions began to fall back as the Germans moved rapidly through the country, occupying Salonika on 8 April.
The evacuation of Allied forces from Greece began on 24 April and continued for a week. Despite a severe shortage of Allied shipping, more than 50,000 British, Australian, New Zealand, Greek and Polish troops were evacuated. Many Allied soldiers escaped with the assistance of the Greek Navy. However, 10,000 British Commonwealth soldiers were captured and all the tanks from the British 1st Armoured Division, heavy equipment and trucks were abandoned. Most of the Allied units were evacuated to Crete, but others went to Egypt.
On 23 April the Greek Army surrendered. King George II of Greece and his government escaped to Crete.
On 27 April 1941, German troops captured the Greek capital, Athens. Following the Greek surrender Germany, Italy and Bulgaria divided the country into 3 zones of occupation. German and Italy jointly occupied Athens.
Casualties[]
The Italian casualties amounted to 13,755 killed, 50,874 wounded and 25,067 captured or missing.[17]German losses in the invasion of Greece were 1.500 killed (including 200 Luftwaffe pilots) and 3,700 wounded.[18]
The Greeks suffered 70,000 killed or wounded and 270,000 captured.[19]The British fores lost 12,000 killed, wounded or captured.[20]
Consequences[]
Some historians argue that Axis intervention in Greece was decisive in determining the outcome of the Second World War, claiming that the delay in launching Operation Barbarossa (the German invasion of Russia) resulted in the defeat of the Axis powers. Others claim that the British decision to reinforce Greece allowed the Afrika Korps to arrive in Libya and prolong the North African Campaign. Nevertheless, the Axis occupation of Greece and Yugoslavia and resulting costly anti-partisan operations, deeply affected the Axis war effort in North Africa and the Eastern Front.
References[]
- ↑ "Meanwhile, British code-breaker learned of Italian intentions, relaying the information to Metaxas, who knew the day Italy would attack his country. Thus forwarned, the Greek defenders shifted their forces to the Macedonian front, where they would outnumber their opponents." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 67, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ "They nonetheless attacked in a four-pronged advance forty kilometres into Greek territory. The Tsamouria Corps clawed its way to Kalpaki through the moutains, as the Littoral X advanced along the coast." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 68, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ "In the face of enormous physical difficulties presented everywhere by the terrain and stubborn, persistent resistance from the Greeks, a bridgehead over the Kalamatas River was established by the Littoral Group and Aosta Lancers through sheer force of will." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 68, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ "The Julia Division was thereby able to thrust a wedge into the enemy line and fended off infiltration attacks mounted by General Papagos in the process of surrounding the Italians." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 68, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ "Reinforcements of elite Bersaglieri came to the rescue, breaking the Greek attempts at encirclement, but at the cost of many casualties." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 68, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ 30,000 ITALIANS HELD ENCIRCLED
- ↑ "Although reinforcements were thrown into improvised counter-attacks, they could not prevent the loss of another key position at Erseke, which exposed the 11th Army's left flank." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 68, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ Serb Attacks Beaten Off By Italians
- ↑ The WMFAS began its withdrawal in the evening on Apri 12, 1941, without serious difficulties, along the axis of the Devolis and Aliakmonas valleys. The XIII Division, which had been assigned o cover the gap created in the area of Klissoura, conducted fierce battles on April 15, near Argos Orestiko. An Abridged History of the Greek-Italian and Greek-German War, 1940-1941: Land Operations, Hellenic Army General Staff, 9. 244, Army History Directorate, 1997
- ↑ KORITZA TAKEN ITALIANS CLAIM
- ↑ Their courage, like that of the defenders of the Metaxas line, was to no avail; as so often happens to troops occupying a static position in mobile warfare, the battle was being decided elsewhere … List now detached SS ‘Adolf Hitler’ from the main axis of advance of XXXXth corps and sent it forward in the direction of Koritsa. Far from counter-attacking, however, the demoralized Greeks gave way and thus allowed the Italians to occupy the town without resistance on 15 April. With 9th armoured division crossing the upper Aliakhmon and reaching Servia on the next day, the British forces on the Olympus found themselves surrounded on both flanks. following a decision made by Wilson three days earlier they now started falling back across Thessaly to Thermopylae, leaving in their wake 20,000 Greek troops who, being less well endowed with motor vehicles, failed to escape in time and were captured by the Germans. (Source: Martin van Crevald, Hitler’s Strategy 1940-1941: The Balkan Clue, p. 162, Cambridge University Press, 1973
- ↑ "With casualties sky-rocketing and equipment irretrievably lost, King George II was forced to accept Churchill's long-standing offer of more reinforcements on 24 February." Mussolini's War, Frank Joseph, p. 67, Casemate Publishers, 2010
- ↑ "The following day, the Greeks accepted the offer, whereon Britain dispatched some of its best North African forces to Greece: 60,000 men with 240 field artillery pieces, 32 medium artillery guns, 192 antiaircraft guns, and 142 tanks." Encyclopedia of World War II, Spencer Tucker, p. 633 , ABC-Clio, 2005
- ↑ "Yugoslav 'human wave' attacks in Albania are reported to have been beaten back by Italian counterattacks along the 420-mile front. "For 48 hours the Serbs have been moving in wave upon wave through rain and snow against Scutari, on the southern shore of a lake of the same name, only to be mowed down by Fascist machine-gunners and scattered by Italian airmen, war front advices said." Serb Attacks Beaten Off By Italians
- ↑ "Their courage, like that of the defenders of the Metaxas line, was to no avail; as so often happens to troops occupying a static position in mobile warfare, the battle was being decided elsewhere … List now detached SS 'Adolf Hitler' from the main axis of advance of XXXXth corps and sent it forward in the direction of Koritsa. Far from counter-attacking, however, the demoralized Greeks gave way and thus allowed the Italians to occupy the town without resistance on 15 April. With 9th armoured division crossing the upper Aliakhmon and reaching Servia on the next day, the British forces on the Olympus found themselves surrounded on both flanks. following a decision made by Wilson three days earlier they now started falling back across Thessaly to Thermopylae, leaving in their wake 20,000 Greek troops who, being less well endowed with motor vehicles, failed to escape in time and were captured by the Germans." Martin van Crevald, Hitler's Strategy 1940-1941: The Balkan Clue, p. 162, Cambridge University Press, 1973
- ↑ "About 25 miles south of Lake Ochrid, Koritza is a road junction whence a road leads eastwards to Florina, hinge of the present British-Greek line confronting the Axis armies. Fast columns of Bersaglieri on motor cycles and in armored cars entered Koritza at 12.30 p.m. today and captured "numerous prisoners and arms of every kind including several batteries of cannon," it was claimed. " KORITZA TAKEN ITALIANS CLAIM Recapture of Important Albanian Town Announced at Rome
- ↑ "Italian: 13,755 dead, 50,874 wounded, 25,065 missing." Chronology of World War II, Christopher Argyle, p. 61, Exeter Books, 1980
- ↑ "German losses in the Greek campaign were 1.500 killed (including 200 valuable pilots) and 3,700 wounded." World War II in Europe, David T. Zabecki, p. 1521, Routledge, 2015
- ↑ "The Greeks, reinforced by a British corps shipped across from North Africa, put up a much tougher fight, although when the fighting against the Italians is taken into account their losses came to 70,000 killed or wounded and 270,000 captured." Why the Germans Lost: The Rise and Fall of the Black Eagle, Bryan Perrett, p. 204, Pen and Sword, 2013
- ↑ "The British corps's loss came to 12,000 from all causes and, although eighty per cent of its personnel were evacuated by sea, all heavy equipment had to be abandoned." Why the Germans Lost: The Rise and Fall of the Black Eagle, Bryan Perrett, p. 204, Pen and Sword, 2013